CHARLES R. DARWIN: HAPPY 116th ANNIVERSARY

© © [All Rights Reserved.] This paper was originally completed on November 11, 1993 and was presented on November 17, 1993, in the Session entitled "Anthropology and Curriculum: Perennial Problems and New Possibilities" at the 92nd Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association Meetings, Washington D.C., November 17-21, 1993 and was placed on the WWW on December 30, 1998. For other WWW items dealing with Charles Darwin that developed since this 1993 paper, please click here.

INTRODUCTION
CHARLES R. DARWIN (1809-1882)
CHANGES IN DARWIN
COMMENTS, CONCLUDING REMARKS, AND THE MEETINGS
EPILOGUE AND THE VIDEOTAPE
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
APPENDIX I, APPENDIX II, and APPENDIX III
REFERENCES CITED
SPECIFIC DARWIN WEB SOURCES LOCATED AT CSU, CHICO.

ORIGINAL ABSTRACT [25 MARCH 1993]

Although dead some 111 years, the ideas of Charles R. Darwin (1809-1882) obviously continue to have an impact in all areas of anthropological thought. The position is taken in this paper that the most important course in the anthropology curriculum is one that deals with the history of the discipline. The current paper analyzes Darwin's ideas in the context of his times as well as ideas presented by individuals who came before and after Darwin. An understanding of the context of the content provides us with a greater appreciation of the development of anthropological thought. A brief segment of a videotape demonstrating a lecture by Darwin to an undergraduate class will be presented. The history of the discipline not only includes ideas of Darwin (and interpretations of various ideas) but also attendance at these meetings. In addition to Darwin, comments are also made on various meetings of the American Anthropological Association, a cultural phenomena this anthropologist has attended since 1968.

INTRODUCTION

Numerous books, studies, and essays have been written about Charles R. Darwin (February 12, 1809 - April 19, 1882), and one must admit that following the distinguished physicist Segrè who wrote about Galileo Galilei [1564-1642], "I feel embarrassed to try to add something to this avalanche" ( E. G. Segrè, 1969, "Galileo" in Great Men Of Physics, page 9) but I am going to try and share some new insights (and perhaps some new information) with the audience. Interestingly enough, it is one-hundred and sixteen years ago this date, November 17, 1877, that Charles R. Darwin received an Honorary Doctorate of Laws, from his alma mater (Cambridge University), where he received his B.A. in 1830. Happy 116th Anniversary Charles Darwin!

Since joining the faculty at CSU, Chico in August 1973, I have often taught one of the required courses for the Anthropology Major, namely "History and Theory" (ANTH 296) and I truly believe what I stated in the abstract written almost eight months ago: the most important course in the anthropology curriculum is one that deals with the history of the discipline. With historical background (blended with anthropological insight), one gets to appreciate the development of anthropology and one is allowed to formulate his or her own theories to deal with the interpretation(s) of anthropologists about culture(s).

In the past quarter-of-a-century, I have attended thirteen of our our annual meetings, with my first in Seattle in 1968; then in my second year of graduate school at the University of Oregon, it was a very exciting time. Note that for the 1967 Annual Meeting in this city, there were a total of 309 papers presented. At my first meeting in 1968, there were approximately 370 papers to whet the anthropological appetite, including information by my current CSU, Chico colleagues: Keith Johnson appeared in the film entitled 4-Butte-1 and Valene Smith's film, Three Stone Blades, was also presented in Seattle. (There would be no way to predict that Valene would later interview me for my current position at Chico while I was job-searching at the 1972 Meetings in Toronto and that within the decade I would have some of my Tongan interpretations published in her pioneering Hosts And Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 1977 and 1989) In San Francisco in 1992, there were approximately 2274 papers presented! Today's paper is the ninth presentation at an Annual Meeting since 1968 (see References Cited); I have also attended various rites of passage [with praise going to that often unsung anthropological hero, Charles Arnold Van Gennep, 1873-1957]), without paper presentations: San Francisco (1975), Denver (1984), Phoenix (1988), Washington, D.C. (1989), and San Francisco (1992). The number of papers presented has greatly increased while the meeting duration has essentially remained constant. Since I do deal with the "history" of the discipline, note the "growth" of the meetings:

For Seattle, a colleague and I co-authored a paper (presented by Dennis Roth) entitled "Scale Analyses and the Elaboration of Menstrual Taboos" and in 1969 I presented my first paper to this group in New Orleans: a second-year seminar paper entitled "A Selective View of Lévi-Strauss' Intellectual Antecedents" and I saw all sorts of things about this "Dean of Structuralism" (as a recent description for Tristes Tropiques pointed out). Since I could not do my "field work" in Paris, in my graduate naivete I wrote to my consultant/informant Claude Lévi-Strauss (born 1908), and much to my delightful surprise, he immediately responded and we entered into brief correspondence. I saw a bit of Ludwig Wittgenstein [1889-1951] in Lévi-Strauss, but alas, it was nothing but my projection; perhaps in my later years I would have asked Lévi-Strauss what influence Baltasar Gracian [1601-1658] had on his own theories.

I've discovered that anthropology and the history of anthropology is not only fun (and work), but it is also interesting to correspond with anthropologists who "make" that history! Just as I was heading out to the Polynesian Kingdom of Tonga from Honolulu in 1970, Doug Oliver graciously allowed me to peruse the manuscript for Ancient Tahitian Society; and in organizing a Tongan/Samoan Symposium for the 1972 Toronto meetings, Margaret Mead (1901-1978) and I entered into correspondence (and she took time out from her heavy schedule to be a discussant at that symposium (along with Lowell Holmes and Bob Tonkinson). Although I had seen Mead at meetings, University of Oregon students were also familiar with her as a result of Luther Cressman (born 1897) at Oregon. Perhaps this also happened to other UO students, but I shall never forget the day in the late 1960s when I approached Dr. Cressman and naively asked of him: "Dr. Cressman, weren't you Margaret Mead's first husband?" and he responded to me in a slightly bemused tone: "Young man, she was my first wife." I learned a lot about communication that day! The following chart is somewhat useful for dealing with parts of the discipline:

Utilizing a chart such as this, or building one's own genealogy, allows one to understand certain aspects of the discipline and (hopefully) place some of the current discussions of modernism, post-modernism, contextualization, poetics, reinterpretations, and "narratological" into some historical (and anthropological) perspective! [See, for example, the works of A. Biersack (1991), I. Brady (1991), J. Clifford & G. Marcus (1986), M. Manganaro (1990), or L. Foerstel & A. Gilliam (1992), just to cite just a few recent examples. Incidentally, in my opinion, in this last edited volume by Foerstel & Gilliam (entitled Confronting The Margaret Mead Legacy: Scholarship, Empire, and the South Pacific), it is unfortunate that information was not presented on Mead's own 1928 Ph.D. from Columbia University, based on library research, as Metraux has already pointed out: "So, in 1925, when she had completed her graduate training and had written a library dissertation, An Inquiry into the Question of Cultural Stability in Samoa (1928), she set out for Samoa...." (Metraux 1980: 265). Mead herself wrote that her "study was completed in the spring of 1925, after which time the author spent nine months in the Samoan Islands" (Mead 1928: n.p). Clearly then, all dissertation research in anthropology does not have to be based on "fieldwork" away from one's own culture and Mead was awarded her Ph.D. from Boas based on a library dissertation.] In order to understand current discussions, one needs a good background in the history of the discipline. [See, for example, P. Bohannan and M. Glazer (1988), U. Gacs et al. (1989), L.L. Langness (1987), and virtually anything by George W. Stocking, to cite but a few items.] Incidentally, be aware that a 1991 report pointed out that for Anthropology, the median time from the B.A. to the Ph.D. was 12.4 years. (For comparison purposes, it was pointed out that for Psychology it was 10.1 years and for Economics 9.1 years from B.A. to Ph.D.) [ R. L. Peters, 1992, Getting What You Came For: The Smart Student's Guide To Earning A Master's Or A Ph.D. (Farrar, Strauss and Giroux), page 12.] While some of you are working on your Ph.D.'s and changing as individuals, the discipline of anthropology is also changing right along side of you!

In brief, I view human behavior as an anthropologist and teach and do anthropology. The most important thing about any discipline is to appreciate and understand how ideas came into being (and how they are interpreted, reinterpreted, and misinterpreted over time). If you followed the "Four-Field Commentary" in the Anthropology Newsletter you will note that in 1992 I pointed out that "Anthropology" first appeared in the English language in 1593 (the first "ology" to do so) [T.H. Savory, 1967, The Language of Science (London), page 88] and August Comte (1798-1857), might also be considered the titular father of anthropology! As translated, Comte once wrote: "To understand a science it is necessary to know its history." [ C. F. Urbanowicz, 1992, Four-Field Commentary. Anthropology Newsletter, Vol. 33, No. 9, page 3 [see Appendix I for August Comte's French statement on anthropologie as well as Appendix II for the complete "Commentary" item.]

CHARLES R. DARWIN (1809-1882)

"The [1937] Hungarian Nobel Prize winner [in Physiology/Medicine], Szent-Geörgyi [von Nagyrapolt], once said that a scientist should see what everybody else has seen and then think what nobody has thought. Nobody did this better than Charles Darwin, who first realized that the evolution of life took place by Natural Selection. Darwin taught us all to see more clearly what everyone had seen, and Darwin also taught us to think, along with him, what no one else had thought. No branch of science is more dominated by a single theory, by a single great idea, than is the whole of biology by the idea of evolution by Natural Selection [stress added]." (J. Livingston and L. Sinclair, 1967, Darwin and the Galapagos, n.p.)

Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England, 160 miles northwest of London on the 12th of February 1809, the same day that Abraham Lincoln (16th President of the USA) was born in Kentucky. On the 12th of February 1882, Darwin wrote to a friend that "my course is nearly run." Within two months, on 19 April 1882, he had a fatal heart attack and died. His remains are in Westminster Abbey, in London. In 1876, at the age of sixty-eight, Darwin wrote in his Autobiography that the five-year voyage on His Majesty's Ship Beagle, over the years of 1831-1836 was "by far the most important event of my life and has determined my whole career" (S. E. Hyman, 1963, Darwin for Today (New York), page 1).

Considering the research that is being done today (including field location by means of GPS, or Global Positioning Satellites), it can be difficult to remember the distances people DID NOT travel in the past. In my classes, I point out that the anthropologist of the 19th (and early 20th) century was more than the intellectual tourist. We were, perhaps, the foreign correspondent (or perhaps the "poor person's travel agent") of the time: who else visited people in the South Pacific or Tierra del Fuego and discussed them in the accepted scientific terms of the day? In a poetical 1991 description of a trip to Tierra del Fuego, Richard Lee Marks (writing in Three Men Of The Beagle) had the following:

"Nowadays, when you can jet from New York to Buenos Aires to Ushuaia with a stop-over in Comodoro Rivadavia, all within twenty-four hours (if your connections are excellent), you may still stand there on the shore looking across the gray-green water of the Beagle Channel at Navarin Island--but you may be less respectful of the strangeness and your mind-set may be more intractable, less susceptible to the great question of human existence [stress added]" (R. L. Marks, 1991, Three Men Of The Beagle (NY: Avon), pages 5-6).

Returning to England in 1836 Darwin proposed to his cousin Emma Wedgwood (1808-1896) and in 1839 they married. Living in London at first, in 1842 they left and moved to Down, 16 miles from The City. In July of 1837, Darwin opened his first notebook and started gathering facts on variations in plants and animals. By 1844 he had enlarged the notes into a sketch which he thought probable and those notes resulted in the 1859 On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life.

Numerous words have been written about Darwin's ideas concerning the Bible prior to his voyage on HMS Beagle and his apparent changes as a result of that voyage; numerous words have also written about Darwin's "atheism" and his disdain of a supreme being. Albeit an old "gauntlet" but still a useful one, Edward J. Larson pointed out in his 1989 publication entitled Trial And Error: The American Controversy Over Creation and Evolution that in 1860:

"The cleric-geologist Edward Hitchcock threw down the gauntlet a year after the publication of Origin of Species when he warned readers of his high-school textbook that the theory of evolution was 'intended and adopted to vindicate atheism.'" [ E. J. Larson , 1989, Trial And Error: The American Controversy Over Creation and Evolution (NY: Oxford University Press), page 185; citing Edward Hitchcock and Charles H. Hitchcock, 1860, Elementary Geology (New York: Ivison), pages 373-374].

I would like, however, to point out the following which Darwin wrote in his HMS Beagle publication, well before the Origin of 1859:

"Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none exceed in sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of man; whether those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are predominant, or those of Tierra del Fuego, where Death and Decay prevail. Both are temples filled with the varied productions of the God of nature:--no one can stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of his body [stress added]" (C. Darwin, 1839 [1860 edition], The Voyage of the Beagle [1962 Doubleday edition edited by Leonard Engel], Chapter XXI ("Mauritius To England"), page 500).

Emphasizing Darwin's choice of words for a "God of nature" becomes clearer when I point out that he wrote of a "Creator" in Origin and many authors have chosen to ignore his use of this powerful word.

CHANGES IN DARWIN

Change is apparent where Darwin is concerned. After his 1859 publication of On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, it went through five additional editions in his own lifetime (in addition to his numerous other publications). Please consider the following changes which took place over the six editions of Origin (from M. Peckham, Editor, 1959, The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin: A Variorum Text (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press):

In the 1869 edition Darwin used the famous phrase "Survival of the Fittest" (borrowed from Herbert Spencer [1820-1903]) and by the 1872 edition, "On" was dropped from the title. In 1859, Darwin originally only wrote the following about human beings: "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history" and by the 6th edition of 1872, Darwin wrote as follows:

"In the future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be securely based on the foundation already well laid by Mr. Herbert Spencer, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Much light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."

In his 1876 autobiography, Darwin wrote that at the time of Origins he could be viewed as a theist, or one who had the conviction of the existence of God. Ideas and perspectives change over time and in 1876 Darwin stated:

"it has very gradually with many fluctuations become weaker. ... I cannot pretend to throw the least light on such abstruse problems [as the existence of God and]. The mystery of the beginning of all things is impossible by us; and I for one must be content to remain an agnostic" (S. E. Hyman, 1963, Darwin for Today, page 371).

Darwin was not an atheist but an agnostic, a term coined in 1869 by his good friend, Thomas Huxley (1825-1895). An agnostic is defined as "a person who believes that the human mind cannot know whether there is a God or an ultimate cause, or anything beyond material phenomena" and Darwin's philosophy was a problem for his wife Emma, who maintained a deep orthodox religious conviction throughout her life; his agnostic beliefs did "make her sad" and uneasy for his sake (G. De Beer, 1964, Charles Darwin: Evolution by Natural Selection, page 269).

Darwin was not lacking in faith; the faith that he held, however, was that of a scientist: perhaps there are some things which are simply not knowable and let us go on to what we can know! Maybe we should consider the words of the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968) who stated it well in this century: "Science investigates; religion interprets. Science gives man knowledge which is power; religion gives man wisdom which is control." Darwin was certainly not an atheist who rejected all religious beliefs and denied the existence of God; he was, however, unwilling to accept supernatural explanations for the world he observed all around him. Perhaps Darwin should have quoted the words of his contemporary, the Scottish historian and essayist, Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881): "I don't pretend to understand the Universe - it's a great deal bigger than I am . . . People ought to be modester" or Darwin could have chosen a philosophy from elsewhere in the world, for it is written that a Shinto saying is "belief is for mortals, proof is for the Gods." Please note that in the second edition of 1860 Darwin included the following words in closing his book:

"Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is a grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator [STRESS added] into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved."

It is unfortunate to read others who quote Darwin and (who at times) quote him so badly for (one must guess), their own purposes: consider, for example, an article which appeared in 1982 (in the now defunct) Science magazine entitled "On the Life of Mr. Darwin," written by a "Contributing Editor." After presenting an interesting "interview" with Darwin, the editor concluded with the following quote:

"There is a grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed laws [sic.] of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved" (R. Bingham, 1982, "On The Life Of Mr. Darwin" in Science 82, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 34-39, page 39).

Not only did Bingham not cite Darwin's specific reference to the "Creator" but he also pluralized the "law" of gravity into many laws! If one is familiar with the original, one notes the difference. Recently, in a 1993 publication, even the indefatigable Stephen Jay Gould saw fit to quote Darwin's Origin as follows:

"And I remembered that Charles Darwin had drawn the very same contrast in the final lines of the Origin of Species. When asking himself, in one climactic paragraph, to define the essence of the differences between life and the inanimate cosmos, Darwin chose the directional character of evolution vs. the cyclical repeatability of our clockwork solar system [and Gould then quotes the following from Darwin]: 'There is a grandeur in this view of life.... [these "...." are placed by Gould in his quote, which continues as follows] Whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved'" (S. J. Gould, 1993, "Shoemaker And Morning Star" in Eight Little Piggies: Reflections In Natural History , pp. 216-217).

Gould must have had a reason for not mentioning Darwin's reference to the "Creator" (added by Darwin in his second edition of 1860), but it is not be obvious to the casual reader. One deduces that Gould is quoting from the 1st edition since Peckham's Variorum work points out that in the 1st edition Darwin had a comma between "being" and "evolved" and by the 6th edition of 1872 Darwin changed it to "being evolved" (M. Peckham, 1959, page 105).

COMMENTS, CONCLUDING REMARKS, AND THE MEETINGS

Facts do not speak for themselves and as Arnold J. Toynbee (1889-1975) has written:

"Facts are not really like boulders that have been detached and shaped and deposited exclusively by the play of forces of non-human nature. They are like flaked and chipped flints, hewn stones, bricks or briquettes. Human action has had a hand in making them what they are, and they would not be what they are if this action had not taken place. ... Facts are, in truth, exactly what is meant by the Latin word facta from which the English word is derived. They are 'things that have been made" (A. J. Toynbee, 1964, A Study of History: Reconsiderations, Volume 12, page 250).

What is the significance of this statement for the "facts" of anthropology, or Charles Darwin, or these meetings? In my opinion, the significance comes from the "fact" that I believe you should do your own research, gather your own facts, and make your own interpretations. It means go to meetings, gather your own information about the discipline, and invest the time (and money and energy) to participate, meet people face-to-face, and prepare and present papers (and definitely stay within the time limitations set by the moderator). Get an idea for who is doing what and where and why; try to determine for yourself what is important, what is trivial, and what is simply the same old thing written up in a new vocabulary. Determine what not to waste your precious time on: don't waste time, for that is the most important non-renewable resource!

Some final words on Darwin: regardless of your individual opinions of him, Darwin was truly unique. There has been no one like him since and there probably will never be another like him. Darwin's work made an incredible impact during his lifetime and, unfortunately, he has been greatly maligned by many. After he had his final heart attack on the 19th of April 1882, he made no deathbed statement as to his faith, but had he been asked the question by someone: "Darwin, have you made peace with God? perhaps he would have chosen to respond with the words of Thoreau on his deathbed who is said to have stated: "I didn't know we had quarreled."

EPILOGUE AND THE VIDEOTAPE

California State University, Chico, has an extensive terrestrial television system called "Instructional Television For Students" that distributes various educational courses throughout northern California. (ITFS actually stands for "Instructional Television Fixed Service" as authorized by the FCC [Federal Communications Commission].) CSU, Chico also has an extra-terrestrial satellite system which transmits Computer Sciences courses "live via satellite" throughout North America. (C.F. Urbanowicz and Lou Nevins, 1991a, Extra-Terrestrial Education: Not Science Fiction at All; also see C.F. Urbanowicz, 1991b, Information Technology for the Pacific Basin.) In the Spring of 1993 I taught a three semester-unit upper division Cultural Anthropology course "live" via the terrestrial system to various northern California locations.

The idea to present Darwin in the first person is not unique: years ago I came across a book by a University of California, Berkeley Professor of Zoology Richard M. Eakin (1975) entitled Great Scientists Speak Again. Darwin, as well as Mendel (1822-1884), and several others were portrayed by Eakin for his UCB Zoology 10 class (and you may obviously consult his volume to compare his Darwin with my Darwin). One final quote, not used earlier, but most appropriate:

"Darwin taught us all to see more clearly what everyone had seen, and Darwin also taught us to think, along with him, what no one else had thought. No branch of science is more dominated by a single theory, by a single great idea, than is the whole of biology by the idea of evolution by Natural Selection" (J. Livingston and L. Sinclair, 1966, Darwin and the Galapagos, n.p.).

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Born September 23, 1942, Urbanowicz received his Ph.D. in Anthropology (University of Oregon, 1972) based on fieldwork in the Polynesian Kingdom of Tonga in 1970 and 1971 (combined with archival research in Hawai'i, Australia, and New Zealand). Prior to this, after his 1960 high school graduation, Urbanowicz attended New York University in 1960-1961 where he flunked out. After enlisting in the United States Air Force in 1961 (Honorably Discharged in 1965), he took his first post-NYU course in the State of Washington from Dr. Lionel Tiger (currently Charles Darwin Professor of Anthropology at Rutgers University). After USAF service, Urbanowicz attended Western Washington University and was influenced by Dr. Herbert C. Taylor, Jr. (1924-1991). Urbanowicz was awarded the B.A. in Sociology/Anthropology (1967) from WWU and then went on to the University of Oregon where he was awarded the M.A. in Anthropology (1969) and then the Ph.D. (1972).

Urbanowicz taught at the University of Minnesota (Minneapolis) for 1972-1973, then joined the faculty of CSU, Chico, and is now a Professor of Anthropology. He served as Associate Dean in the Center for Regional and Continuing Education from 1977-1988 and was active in the University's distance education activities. The "gap" in American Anthropological Association meeting information depicted on page 2 of this paper came during this time period. Although no longer involved in CSU, Chico's distance education, he follows aspects of information technologies on a global scale. Urbanowicz has been a Member of the Board of Directors of the Pacific Telecommunications Council, the Public Service Satellite Consortium, and the Society for Satellite Professionals, International; he was also involved in the Council on Anthropology and Education. Currently engaged on research into "Tourism," he is preparing papers dealing with specific aspects of that industry ("gaming") for the Far West Popular Culture Association and Far West American Culture Association 5th Anniversary Meeting (Las Vegas, January 21-23, 1994), as well as the session entitled "Heritage Tourism In The Global Village" for the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology, Cancún, Mexico (April 13-17, 1994). Today's paper is based on C. F. Urbanowicz, 1990, Charles R. Darwin: My Life And Death (CSU, Chico, College of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Discussion Paper 90-1) and a 1993 70" VHS tape.

NOTE ADDED IN JANUARY 1999: For WWW items dealing with Charles Darwin that developed from this 1993 paper, please click here.

APPENDIX I [AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)]

Comte's schema was as follows: Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Sociology. Anthropologie was the 7th science and in 1852 he wrote:

"Elle n'était point apprécable avant que ma fondation de la sociologie eut terminé la préparation encyclopédique qu'exigeait l'avénement systématique de la véritable anthropologie, à laquelle il faut conserver son nom sacré de morals. Cette condition finale étant désormais remplie, et m'ayant déjà conduit à construire subjectivement la saine théorie cérébrale, le septieme et dernier degré de la grand hiérarchie abstraite devient aussi caractérise que tous les autres." (A. Comte, 1852, Système de Politique Positive (Paris), Vol. II: 437.

The 1875 translation of Comte was as follows:

"The consequences could not be seen, until, by founding Sociology, I was able to add the last group to the Encyclopedic series of the sciences, When this was affected, it was possible to have a systematic basis for an Anthropology, or true science of Man, though this science ought ever to retain its sacred name of morals. Now that this last condition has been fulfilled, and now that it has already enabled me to construct on subjective methods a sound Cerebral Theory, the seventh and last gradation in the Grand Hierarchy of Abstract Science is a distinctively defined as any of the others [ALL STRESS ADDED]" (A. Comte, 1875 translation of System of Positive Polity (Paris), Vol. II; 356-357.)

APPENDIX II: This was a reprint of:

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1992, Four-Field Commentary [http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/Pub_Papers/4field.html] Anthropology Newsletter (American Anthropological Association, Washington, D.C.], Vol. 33, No. 9: 3.

APPENDIX III: SOME ADDITIONAL WORDS

"I say my philosophy, not as claiming authorship of ideas which are widely diffused in modern thought, but because the ultimate selection and synthesis must be a personal responsibility." (Sir Arthur Eddington [1882-1944], The Philosophy of Physical Science, 1949: viii)

"Anthropologists are highly individual and specialized people. Each of them [or us!] is marked by the kind of work he or she prefers and has done, which in time becomes an aspect of that individual's personality." Margaret Mead [1901-1978]

"A quotation is a polished prefabricated unit of thought or discourse which has many connotations and associations built in to it. It is thus like the text for a sermon, serving as a point of departure for many lines of thought." (Alan L. Mackay, 1977)

"....descriptions vary with the conceptual or theoretical framework within which they are couched. To evaluate a description properly one must know something about the theoretical framework that brought it into being." (D. Kaplan and R. Manners, Culture Theory, 1972: 22)

"The cutting edge of knowledge is not in the known but in the unknown, not in knowing but in questioning. Facts, concepts, generalizations, and theories are dull instruments unless they are honed to a sharp edge by persistent inquiry about the unknown." (Ralph H. Thompson [1911-1987] American Educator).

"One who makes a close study of almost any branch of science soon discovers the great illusion of the monolith. When he [or she] stood outside as an uninformed layman, he [or she] got a vague impression of unanimity among the professionals. He [or she] tended to think of science as supporting the Establishment with fixed and approved views. All this dissolves as he [or she] works his [or her] way into the living concerns of practicing scientists. He [and she] finds lively personalities who indulge in disagreement, disorder, and disrespect. He [and she] must sort out conflicting opinions and make up his [and her] own mind as to what is correct and who is sound. This applies not only to provinces as vast as biology and to large fields such as evolutionary theory, but even to small and familiar corners such as the species problem. The closer one looks, the more diversity one finds." [Norman Macbeth, Darwin Retried, 1971: 18]

"Scientific explanation consists not in moving from the complex to the simple but in the replacement of a less intelligible complexity by one which is more so." (Claude Lévi-Strauss, 1962, The Savage Mind, 1968 edition, page 248)

"When you ferret out something for yourself, piecing the clues together unaided, it remains for the rest of your life in some way truer than facts you are merely taught, and freer from onslaughts of doubt." Colin Fletcher, 1968, The Man Who Walked Through Time, p. 109.

"Whatever you cannot understand, you cannot possess." J. W. Von Goethe [1749-1832].

"Thanks to the Interstate Highway System, it is now possible to travel from coast to coast without seeing anything." (Charles Kuralt [1934- ].

"Still, a book is less important for what it says than for what it makes you think." (Louis L'Amour, 1989, Education of A Wandering Man, page 101)

"...and that this was the kind of freedom we could have in anthropology--to do anything and call it anthropology (which you still can do!)" (Clifford Geertz, "An Interview with Clifford Geertz, Current Anthropology, Vol. 32, No. 5, 1991, page 603).

FINALLY, Urbanowicz adds: "I quote others only the better to express myself." (Michel Eyquem de Montaigne [1533-1592] French philosopher/essayist)

REFERENCES CITED

Biersack, Aletta [Editor], 1991, Clio In Oceania: Towards A Historical Anthropology (Washington, DC: Smithsonian)

Bohannan, Paul and M. Glazer [Editors], 1988, High Points In Anthropology (second edition) (NY: Knopf).

Bingham, Roger, 1982, On The Life Of Mr. Darwin. Science 82, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 34-39.

Brady, Ivan [Editor], 1991, Anthropological Poetics (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers).

Comte, Auguste, 1852, Système de Politique Positive (Paris), Vol. II: 437.

Comte, Auguste, 1875 [translation of], System of Positive Polity (Paris), Vol. II; 356-357

Darwin, Charles, 1839 [1860], The Voyage of the Beagle [1962 Doubleday edition annotated and with an introduction by Leonard Engel].

Darwin, Charles, 1859, On The Origin of Species By Means Of Natural Selection....

De Beer, Gavin, 1964, Charles Darwin: Evolution by Natural Selection

Desmond, Adrian and James Moore, 1991, Darwin (Warner Books).

Eakin, Richard M., 1975, Great Scientists Speak Again (University of California Press).

Foerstel, Lenora and Angela Gilliam [Editors], 1992, Confronting The Margaret Mead Legacy: Scholarship. Empire, And The South Pacific (Philadelphia: Temple University Press).

Freeman, R.B., 1978, Charles Darwin: A Companion (Dawson Publishing/Archon Books).

Gacs, Ute et al., 1989, Women Anthropologists: Selected Biographies (University of Illinois Press).

Gould, Steven J., 1993, Shoemaker And Morning Star. Eight Little Piggies: Reflections In Natural History (NY: Norton & Co.), pp. 206-217.

Hitchcock, Edward and Charles H. Hitchcock, 1860, Elementary Geology (New York: Ivison)

Hyman, Stanley E., 1963, Darwin for Today (New York)

Langness, L.L., 1987, The Study of Culture (Revised Edition) (Chandler & Sharp).

Larson, Edward J., 1989, Trial And Error: The American Controversy Over Creation and Evolution (OUP)

Livingston, John and Lister Sinclair, 1966, Darwin and the Galapagos (Toronto: The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation)

Manganaro, Marc [Editor], 1990, Modernist Anthropology: From Fieldwork to Text (Yale University Press)

Marcus, George E. and Michael Fischer, 1986, Anthropology As Cultural Critique: An Experimental Moment In The Social Sciences (Chicago).

Marks, Richard Lee, 1991, Three Men Of The Beagle (NY: Avon)

Mead, Margaret, 1928, An Inquiry into the Question of Cultural Stability in Polynesia (Columbia University Contributions to Anthropology, Volume IX).

Metraux, Rhoda, 1980, Margaret Mead: A Biographical Sketch. American Anthropologist, Vol. 82, No. 2, pp. 262-269.

Peckham, Morse [Editor], 1959, The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin: A Variorum Text (Philadelphia)

Peters, Robert L., 1992, Getting What You Came For: The Smart Student's Guide To Earning A Master's Or A Ph.D. (Farrar, Strauss and Giroux)

Savory, T.H., 1967, The Language of Science (London).

Segrè, Emilio, 1969, Galileo. Great Men Of Physics: The Humanistic Element of Scientific Work (Edited by E. Segrè et al. (Los Angeles).

Smith, Valene [Editor], 1977, Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism (Philadelphia).

Smith, Valene [Editor], 1989, Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, Second edition (Philadelphia).

Toynbee, Arnold J., 1964, A Study of History: Reconsiderations, Volume 12 (Oxford University Press).

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1968 (with D. Roth), Scale Analyses and the Elaboration of Menstrual Taboos. (The 67th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Seattle, Washington, November 21-26.)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1969, A Selective View of Lévi-Strauss' Intellectual Antecedents. (The 68th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, New Orleans, LA, November 20-24.)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1971, Tongan Culture: From the 20th Century to the 19th Century. (The 70th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, New York, NY, November 19-21.)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1972, Tongan Social Structure: Data From An Ethnographic Reconstruction. (The 71st Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Toronto, Canada, Nov. 29-Dec. 3.)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1973, Anthropology and (Good) Science Fiction. (The 72nd Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, Nov 28 - Dec 2.)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1974 [in absentia], Tongan Tourism Today: Troubled Times? (The 73rd Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Mexico City, November 19-24.)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1977, Tourism in Tonga: Troubled Times. Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, edited by V. Smith (University of Pennsylvania), pp. 83-92.

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1980, Ethnographic Esoterica or Electronic Ethnography: Have We A Choice? (The 79th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Washington, D.C., December 3-7)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1981, Information As Resource: An ITFS Model From Northeastern California. (The 80th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Los Angeles, CA, December 3-6.)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1989,Tourism in Tonga Revisited: Continued Troubled Times? Hosts And Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, edited by V. Smith (2nd Edition), pp. 105-117.

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1990, Charles R. Darwin: My Life And My Death. Discussion Paper 90-1 in Discussion Paper Series (College of Behavioral and Social Sciences, CSU, Chico).

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1991a, (with Louis Nevins) Extra-Terrestrial Education: Not Science Fiction at All. (The Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C., February 14-19).

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1991b, Information Technology for the Pacific Basin. (The 17th Pacific Science Congress, Honolulu, Hawai'i, May 27-June 2.)

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1991c, Another Look at Tourism With Regards to Tonga. Hosts and Guests, edited by V. Smith (Tokyo: Keisó Shobo) [Japanese Translation of 1989], pp. 147-164.

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1992, Four-Field Commentary. Anthropology Newsletter (American Anthropological Association, Washington, D.C.], Vol. 33, No. 9: 3.

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1994a, From Gambling to Gaming: The Evolution of Respectability [Submitted for the Far West Popular Culture Association and Far West American Culture Association 5th Anniversary Meeting, Las Vegas, Nevada, January 21-23, 1994.

Urbanowicz, Charles F., 1994b, The Gaming Heritage: A Natural For Some (And Problems For Others?). [Submitted for the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology, Cancún, Mexico, April 13-17, 1994.]

http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/DarwinPhil108.htm [1998a, "Darwin: From The Origin...." for PHIL 108, December 2, CSU, Chico]

http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/ANTH300.html [1998b, "Charles F. Urbanowicz on Charles R. Darwin" for ANTH 300, October 6, CSU, Chico]

http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/DarwinArt197.html [1998c, "Darwin and Modernism" for ART 197, September 30, CSU, Chico]

http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/Darwin_Folklore.html [1998d, "Folklore Concerning Charles R. Darwin" for the Southwestern Anthropological Society Meetings, April 16-18, Sacramento, CA]

Darwin Continues To Evolve: Urbanowicz On Darwin (Again!). (1997a, For the CSU, Chico Anthropology Forum on September 11.)

Charles Darwin: Reflections - Part One: The Beginning, (1997b) Seventeen Minute Instructional Videotape: Reflections: Part One, Produced by Ms. Donna Crowe: Instructional Media Center, CSU, Chico).

http://www.csuchico.edu/anth/CASP/1996.html (1996, The Chico Anthropological Society Papers, Number 16, Special Edition on Darwin)

http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/Forum/Nov7-96.html (1996, For the CSU, Chico Anthropology Forum on November 7)

http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/Forum/darwin.mov (1996, Quick Time move: 14 seconds)

http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/Darwin/DarwinSem-S95.html (1995 Seminar Paper for ANTH 303)