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6 October 2002 [1]
[This page printed from http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationFall2002.htm]
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© [All Rights Reserved.] Placed on the WWW on October 4, 2002, for a presentation (with visuals) on October 6, 2002, at the monthly lecture series entitled "World Explorations" sponsored by The Museum of Anthropology, California State University, Chico. You will note this is listed as "Part I." The second part is entitled "Some 'Sacred' cities of America (Part II): Honolulu (Hawai'i), Las Vegas (Nevada), and Washington, D.C.", and will be presented in Spring 2003, at the "World Explorations" Series (and that web page will be available at http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationSpring2003.htm). (Incidentally, a slightly modified version of today's presentation will be made on October 10, 2002 to the "Anthropology Forum" at CSU, Chico, available at http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/AnthroForum2002.htm.) My appreciation goes to Ms. Debra Besnard and Mr. Stan Griffith and the "Digital Asset Management Project" in Special Collections in the Meriam Library for some of the digital imaging work they did on some of my slides used today. |
A modest amount of the information (and visuals) for today were originally presented under the title of "Culture and Nature: Machu Pichu (Perú) and The Galápagos Islands (Ecuador), July 2000" on March 4, 2001 in this room. The presentation this evening "builds" on that presentation (available on the web at http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationSpring2001.html) and, hopefully, adds to it! Incidentally, a "parallel" presentation will be made in Spring 2003 under the title of "Some 'Sacred' Cities of America (Part II): Honolulu (Hawai'i), Las Vegas (Nevada), and Washington, D.C.' (to be located at http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationSpring2003.htm. You will note that I deal in "threes" and shall attempt these "cities of the past" (today) with these cities in Spring 2003. Finally,I have been interested in something like this topic from at least 1967, and the web references for this paper includes a 1967 Honors Paper published in my final undergraduate year at Western Washington University (then Western Washington State College), Bellingham, Washington. I am not an archaeologist but a cultural anthropologist and I had read about these locations in books and journals and when the opportunity arose to visit them...I went! Human beings are amazing and anthropology is fun!
"The Russians have a proverb: He lies like an eyewitness. Few eyewitnesses see it all, fewer still understand all the implications. And their reports are always personal. Yet what they see is essential. History begins with people caught in the moment-by-moment rush of events. The correspondent on the scene shares the jolt of joy or horror in watching the world change in an instant. Personal bias becomes part of the story, and often makes the account more vivid [stress added]." David Colbert [Editor], 1997, Eyewitness to America: 500 Years of America in the Words of Those Who Saw It Happen (NY: Pantheon Books), page xxvii.
The visual impact of seeing various things cannot be denied. This is why I use a great deal of media in all of my classes and why I went to see various sites and although the last "archaeological dig" I was on was in the 1960s as an undergraduate at Western Washing State College (now Western Washington State University) I have always been interested in archaeology and archaeological implications and interpretations.
"The 730 properties which the World Heritage Committee has inscribed on the World Heritage List (563 cultural, 144 natural and 23 mixed properties in 125 States Parties)."http://whc.unesco.org/heritage.htm [UNESCO World Heritage List]
"Today, most thoughtful people would think that the idea of American history without American Indians was an absurdity. Yet for generations historians of the United States wrote the nation's story as if Indians did not exist, or at best historians marginalized native people as bit players in the great national drama. In U.S. history textbooks Indians emerged only in time to be swept aside by westering white Americans. In the 1960s, the civil rights movement and the growth of political activism among people of color, ethnic groups, and women resulted in a challenge to exclusively Anglocentric history [stress added]." Albert L. Hurtado and Peter Iverson, 2001, Major Problems In American Indian History (Boston/New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.), page 1.
"Thomas Jefferson [1743-1826] is very often cited as the 'father' of American archaeology, and he certainly attempted one of the first archaeological explanations of the question ["Who Got here First?"] when he wrote in his famous 'Notes on Virginia' (1787) about an Indian mound that he had excavated many years before. However, his strongest evidence to support his belief in an Asian origin (via the Bering Strait) of the Native Americans was from his study of Indian languages. He cited the diversity of these languages as proof that they had been here a long time [stress added]." Stephen William, 1992, Who Got To America First? Anthropology Explored: The Best Of Smithsonian Anthro Notes, 1998, edited by Ruth O. Selig and Marilyn R. London, pages 141-149, page 144.
"When Columbus set sail from Spain in 1492, he speculated that his fastest route to the gold and spices of the Orient was west by sea. After 33 days of sailing, Columbus was within sight of land and assumed he was approaching Asia. He had no idea that the Carribean island before him was the doorstep to two 'unknown' continents. Neither Columbus nor the islands inhabitants who greeted him could have predicted the global consequences of the encounter that began that day. Seeds of Change [video and 1991 book] commemorates the 500th anniversary of Columbus's voyage by focusing on the exchange of plants, animals, and peoples that resulted. Five 'seeds'--corn, potatoes, diseases, horses, and sugar--form the core of this exhibition which tells the story of 500 years of encounter and exchange" [stress added] (1991 Smithsonian Institution brochure).
"...vital and largely unrecognized factor in the historical process is not a human one, but plants. ... Quinine alleviated one of the greatest banes of existence in Europe, Asia, and West Africa: malaria. It enable the white man to open up the tropics and develop great empires. ... Sugar cane, taken by the white man to the West Indies at the time of the Renaissance and cultivated on plantations by black slaves (the only people who could work in the climate) was the cause of the infamous transatlantic slave trade, which made the Carribean black rather than red. ... Tea followed the spices of the major Eastern trade.... Cotton, introduced into the American south, gave declining slavery a new lease of life and provided a cash crop, a political-economic raison d'etre for Dixie. ... The consequences of the potato are still being experienced today.... [stress added]." Henry Hobhouse, Seeds of Change: Five Plants That Transformed Mankind (NY: Harper & Row), pages xi-xiv.
"Columbus and the innumerable discoveries that followed his venture across the Atlantic changed many things for the inhabitants of the Old World, but for most people what mattered most was not the new information about the lands, peoples, plants, and animals of the earth that came pouring into Europe after 1492, nor was it the gold and silver treasure that made the Spanish government so powerful for a century or more. Instead it was a change that historians have often overlooked: the spread of American foods to Europe, Asia, and Africa [stress added]." William H. McNeill, 1991, American Food Crops in the Old World. Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis [Editors], Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press), pages 42-59, page 43.
"Columbus changed forever the history of the planet. But he did so by connecting two worlds of equal maturity, not by 'discovering' a new one. Knowing this, some find it easy to dismiss European insistence on calling America the New World as nothing more than Eurocentric arrogance. Convinced that Europe was synonymous with civilization, colonizing Europeans failed to see anything of value in Indian civilizations. They regarded Indian people as 'primitive' and viewed the land as virgin wilderness. Like other human beings, they were blind to much of what lay before them and instead took in what they wanted to. In a very real sense, however, America did exists as a new world for Europeans. America was more than just a place; it was a second opportunity for humanity--a chance, after the bloodlettings and the pogroms, the plagues and the famines, the political and religious wars, the social and economic upheavals, for Europeans to get it right this time. In the beginning, the American dream was a European dream, and it exerted emotional and motivational power for generations" [stress added]." Colin G. Galloway, 1997, New Worlds For All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America, page 10.
"The lives of prehistoric people were structured around the requirements of hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants, along with the planting, tending, and harvesting of their crops." George R. Milner, 1998, The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press), page 65.
A sabbatical is a chance to re-new and recharge batteries and in Spring of 1997 my wife and I were able to drive across the United States and visit various locations of interest. One such location was Cahokia.
"About 15 kilometres [~9.32 miles] north of St Louis (Missouri), Cahokia provides the most complete source of information on pre-Colombian civilizations in the regions of the Mississippi. It is a striking example of a pre-urban sedentary structure that allows for the study of a kind of social organisation about which no written traces exist."http://whc.unesco.org/sites/198.htm [Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site} 1982]
"During the half millennium or so before European contact, agricultural chiefdoms of varying levels of complexity were present across much of the southeastern United States, an area that has been variosly defined but in most accounts is taken to mean the states south of the Ohio River and from just west of the Mississippi valley eastward to the Atlantic Ocean...." David G. Anderson, The Role of Cahokia in the Evolution of Southeastern Mississippian Society. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 248-268, page 248.
"Cahokia was the largest pre-Columbian town in North America--five times the size of its nearest competition. The site covers 5 square miles (13 square kilometers) of the rich floodplain known as the American Bottom, where the Mississippi and Missouri rivers joined forces near present-day St. Louis. This huge complex of Mississippian culture was surrounded by fertile soils and plentiful wildlife. There is ample evidence of large-scale construction projects, major residential areas, open plazas, protective palisade walls, elite burials, and exotic artifacts. But we do not know what Cahokia's inhabitants called it. The word 'Cahokia' comes from a subtribe of the Illini Indians who apparently came on the scene after the demise of Cahokian culture. Between A.D. 800 and 1350 a number of competing chiefdoms existed in the American Bottom, sometime, consolidating into a single paramount chiefdom, at other times splintering and warring with one another. At its peak, Cahokia was home to 10,000 to 15,000 people, and perhaps tens of thousands more lived on the surrounding floodplain [stress added]." David Hurst Thomas, 2000, Exploring Native North America (NY: Oxford University Press), page 152.
"There was a place in native North America that, far removed in space and time from the Mexican empires and European governments, embodied political order and social inequality of a sort seldom associated with a precontact people. In this place, and spanning more than a century, a dominant few transcended the community and ruled. The produce of a fertile floodplain was carried to this place, the media of a political ideolofy were dispersed. The place was Cahokia [stress added]." Timothy R. Pauketat and Thomas E. Emerson, 1997, Introduction: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 1-29, page 1.
"The Mississippi Valley was much different during Cahokia's heydey than it is today. Large wetlands that snaked their way across the valley have been drained, and many have vanished entirely. Meandering streams have been straightened, and they often head in new directions. Even the river, hemmed in by levees, is narrower, deeper, and less inclined to shift its course or spill over its banks [stress added]." George R. Milner, 1998, The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press), page 25.
"In their time the Cahokians depended on the wider praries as a browsing grassland for the animals they hunted. For farming they depended on the immediately surrounding alluvial, silt-textured soil of the American bottom and on the loess of the bordering bluffs and uplands." Sally A. Kitt Chappel, 2002, Cahokia: Mirror of the Cosmos (University of Chicago Press), page 12.
"Cahokia is the largest archaeological site north of the Rio Grande [River] and the largest Middle Mississippian site in the United States. At its height it covered 8.4 km2 [3.24 square miles], had over 100 earthen mounds, and may have had a population of 25,000 people or more. For these reasons it has a special role in relation to theories concerning the cultural development of native North Americans, but the site also has wider theoretical significance [stress added]." Patricia J. O'Brien, 1991, Early State Economics: Cahokia, Capital of the Ramey State. Early State Economics: Political and Legal Anthropology Volume 8, Henri J.M. Claessen and Pieter van de Velde [Editors] (New Brunswick/London: Transaction Publishers), pages 143-175, page 143.
"Cahokia was extremley complex, had established far-reaching exchange contacts and ceremonial infrastructure in place at a very early time level when compared with developments in other parts of the Mississippian world. The Cahokia paramount chiefdom, which had emerged by A.D. 1050-1100 in the American Bottom, vastly exceeded anything seen before or since elsewhere in the region [italics in original but stress added]." David G. Anderson, The Role of Cahokia in the Evolution of Southeastern Mississippian Society. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 248-268, page 261.
"Cahokia was the driving force behind cultural developments across much of the midcontinent, particularly through the establishment of far-reaching exchange networks.... This populous and at times threatening center was governed by leaders who had both the need and capacity to protect their authority over distant peoples and to organize regular trading ventures among dissimilar and otherwise fractious societies. Much of Cahokia's success is thought to have been related to its position as a gateway between a south-eastern Mississippian heartland and a vast frontier to the north where highly valued raw materials could be found.... Outposts were established throughout the midcontinent to facilitate trade that funnelled goods back to the center.... Traders made good use of the Mississippi's tributaries that drain much of the present-day United States.... Following this line of reasoning, Cahokia rose to a dominant position because it was situated near the center of the Mississippi drainage system. it controlled a critical choke point in trade routes that spanned the midcontinent [stress added]." George R. Milner, 1998, The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press), pages 11-12.
"Other raw materials like shell, mica, and copper are present at Cahokia in appreciable quantity and come from much greater distances, probably from the Great Lakes, the South Appalachians, and the Gulf or south Atlantic coast. Cahokia clearly participated in a regional exchange network...." David G. Anderson, The Role of Cahokia in the Evolution of Southeastern Mississippian Society. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 248-268, page 254.
"...strategically, Cahokia is ideally situated to be a port of trade because it is so near the junction of Misssouri, Mississippi, and Illinois Rivers.... a correlate of storage and warehousing, archaeologically speaking, is the presence of such facilities [at a port-of-trade], and at Cahokia we have some clues concerning them." Patricia J. O'Brien, 1991, Early State Economics: Cahokia, Capital of the Ramey State. Early State Economics: Political and Legal Anthropology Volume 8, Henri J.M. Claessen and Pieter van de Velde [Editors] (New Brunswick/London: Transaction Publishers), pages 143-175, page 157.
"From a comparative or evolutionary perspective, Cahokia is an example of an elaborate nonstate political organization often called a 'complex chiefdom'..... Complex chiefdoms were centralized polities lacking formal bureaucracies in which social groups or sub-groups were hiuerarchically ranked. Power, inequality, kinship and cultural identitiy were negotiated among populations within and between complex chiefdoms." Timothy R. Pauketat and Thomas E. Emerson, 1997, Introduction: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 1-29, pages 3-4.
"The first clear signs of what ultimately developed into the Cahokia chiefdom date to the Emergent Mississippian period [~1000 A.D.]. By that time the general pattern of life with its strong emphases on both wetlands and crops, including maize, was established. Settlement configurations featured elements that matured into the ways space was used in major Mississippian mound centers. Residential structures were arranged around centrally located open areas that held some community-wide significance, judging from the few unusual features they encompassed.... It is not known when moundbuilding began, but earth was quite likely being deposited where Monks Mound took shape over the next several centuries [stress added]." George R. Milner, 1998, The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press), pages 166-167.
"...the total population of Cahokia from A.D. 1050-1100 was about 10,200 to 15,300 people." Timothy Pauketat and Neal Lopinot, 1997, Cahokian Population Dynamics. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 103-123, page 115.
"Advances in zooarchaeological method and theory have led to the more accurate identification of cultural and taphonomic processes that contribute to the formation of faunal assemblages." Lucretia S. Kelly, 1997,Patterns of Faunal Exploitation at Cahokia. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 1-29, page 1.
"Why Was Cahokia Abandoned? No other issue in scholarly circles is thornier than the question of Cahokia's abandonment. Why did the Mississippians leave this splendid constellation of mounds, buildings, plazas, council houses, lodges, palisades, and woodhenges behind them? Why does the site show no signs of human habitation from 1400 to about 1650, when Illini Indians moved into the area? Did circumstances foce the Mississippians to leave, or did they choose to take advantage of better resources in another place? Until new evidence is uncovered, we might content ourselves with a simple answer: we do not know why Cahokia was abandoned. But .... Climactic changes and environmental stress? ... Deforestation and an unintended suicide? ... Nutritional stress? ... Health and sanitation problems? ... Conflict? [stress added]." Sally A. Kitt Chappel, 2002, Cahokia: Mirror of the Cosmos (University of Chicago Press), pages 71-74.
"By the fifteenth century A.D., Cahokia had been scattered to the four winds, leaving behind only archaeological traces of the central capital and its surrounding domain, bereft of the human ideas, actions, and interactions that had definied its history [stress added]." Timothy R. Pauketat and Thomas E. Emerson, 1997, Conclusion: Cahokia and the Four Winds. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 278, page 269.
In 1967, while an undergraduate, I had a short article published about "The Classical Maya" (web site indicated below) and was fortunate to be able to visit that part of the world April 1994 when I presented a paper entitled "The Gaming Heritage: A Natural For Some (And Problems For Others?)" at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology, Cancun, Mexico.
"This site is one of the most impressive testimonies to the Mayan-Toltec civilization of the Yucatan (10th to 15th centuries). It contains some of the most outstanding examples of Central American architecture, combining Mayan construction techniques and Toltec sculpted decoration."http://whc.unesco.org/sites/483.htm [Pre-Hispanic City of Chitchen-Itza} 1968]
"Maya was, naturally, not their name. No one knows what they called themselves or what the name of their language was. Nor do we know, with any degree of certitude, the names of their stone cities...." Victor W. Von Hagen, 1960, The World Of the Maya (NY: The New American Library), page 11.
"The Yucatán Peninsula is made up of three Mexican states: Yucatán on the north, Campeche on the west, and Quintana Roo on the east; geographically, the peninsula also includes the Department of Petén of northern Guatemala, and the entire country of Belize." Joyce Kelly, 1993, An Archaeological Guide to Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press), page 8.
"John Lloyd Stephens (1805-1850) was a new York lawyer with a taste for politics who started traveling for his health. ... While in London in 1836, Stephens met Frederick Catherwood (1804-1852), a British architect and artist who had just returned from a lengthy sketching trip in the Near East. ... The two men became friends and prominent member's of New York's literary circle, where they heard rumours of unexplored temples in the Central American rain forest. In October 1839, they set out on a journey in search of rumoured jungle civilizations [stress added]." Brian M. Fagan [Editor], 1996, Eyewitness to Discovery: First-Person Accounts of More Than Fifty of the World's Greatest Archaeological Discoveries (Oxford University Press), page 334.
"Chichén Itzá, thrice founded (A.D. 432, 964, and 1185), was the greatest of the coastal Maya cities. On a plain so flat that its great pyramid can be seen for miles around, Chichén Itzá was joined by road to Izamal, thence to the seacoast at Polé, in direct line with Cozumel Island. Important in the history of the city are its two enormous natural wells, one of which was used for human sacrifice and the other as a source of water." Victor W. Von Hagen, 1960, The World Of the Maya (NY: The New American Library), page 160.
"When Europeans first landed on the shores of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula early in the 16th century, the great Maya centers were alread faded relics -- timeworn, overgrown, and abandoned. And yet they still possessed a haunting beauty, enveloping all who came near in a flood of amazement. For there, deep within the tropical forests or clustered on the barren limestone tip of the peninsula, rose not one or two monuments, or even one or two settlements, but vast architectural complexes studded with palaces and pyramids, each structure and each setting a triumph of grace and power. The awe-inspiring remains of the 60 or so Maya 'cities' were simply the most visible and enduring evidence of a civilization spectacular in its learning and achievement. In addition to being master engineers and architects, the Maya were sophisticated mathematicians, accomplished astronomers, and meticulous historians, who refined a complex hieroglyphic system of writing for recording their past. In their art and architecture, they achieved a style that is intricate and as technically dazzling as it is visually impressive. The true dimensions of Maya civilization, however, were lost upon most Spanish, who in their haste to conquer and convert, failed to comprehend what lay before them. Not until the 19th century did the extent and grandeur of Maya culture begin to be fully explored and publicized, awakening a quickly captivated world to the fact that a high civilization on the order of ancient Egypt had flourished for nearly 1,000 years in the New World [stress added]." Joseph L. Gardner [Editor], 1986, Mysteries of the Ancient Americas: The New World Before Columbus (Pleasantville, NY: The Reader's Digest Association, Inc.), page 144.
"...the Peninsula of the Yucatan was fractioned into sixteen autonomous provinces, each aiming at ruling over the others. Togheter they formed a complex system of alliances in continuous change. Some communities, instead, like the Port of Tulum and the island of Cozumel became important trading centres. This complex situation explains why, on the arrival of the Spaniards, the provinces of Yucatan opposed no resistance. The first Spanish expeditions took place in the second half of the 16th century; they departed from the island of Cuba and were directed towards the coast of the Peninsula of Yucatan... Juan de Grijalva in 1517....Cortez [1521].... The conquest of the Peninsula of Yucatan continued for a number of years; it started in 1527 when the Spaniards, commanded by Francisco de Montejo, landed on the eastern coast of the peninsula. ... In 1542 Merida was established on the ruins of the prehispanic city of Tho. ... The military conquest was followed by the spiritual one, which was carried out by many religious orders [stress added]." Gerardo Bustus, 1992, Yucatan And Its Archaeological Sites (D.F. México: Monclem Ediciones, S.A. de C.V.), pages 12-16.
"Early Spanish settler in Yucatán noted the remains of Maya roads. 'There are signs even today,' says Diego de Landa, writing in the sixteenth century, 'that there was once a handosme causeway from T'ho [now Mérida] to the other city, Izamal.' This Izamal, another Spanish noted, was a center of great pilgramages: 'for which reason there had been made four roads running out to the four cardinal points which reached to all ends of the land, Tabsaco, Guatemala, Chiapas, so that today [1633] in many parts may be seen vestiges of those roads.'" Victor W. Von Hagen, 1960, The World Of the Maya (NY: The New American Library), page 180.
"The sacred city of the Itzá, called CHICHEN-ITZA in Maya, is located 75 miles (120 km.) east of Mérida, the capital of the state of Yucatán. This archaeological site is rated among the most important ones of the Maya culture and covers an area of approximately 1.85 m (3 km.) by 1.25 m (2 km) north and south of the Mérida-Puertoa Juárez highway which leads to Cancún. The trip by road from Mérida takes about an hour and a half. The highway is rather narrow but otherwise good and goes through picturesque villages like Tahmek, Hoctún, Xocchel, Kantunil, Holcá, Libre Unión), Yokdzonot and Pisté, past several cenotes (natural wells) and the henequén haciendas of San Pedro, Teya, Ticopó, San Bernadino and Holactún. In these towns the remains of interesting churches can still be seen, despite their destruction during the War of the Castes in the 19th century. The drive from Cancún takes around two hours and goes through Valladolid, famous for its cenote, the biggest natural well in Yucatán. The Chichén-Itzá ruins are divided into two important groups. South of the highway lie the constructions corresponding to the Classic Maya period, built approximately between the 7th and the 10th centuries A.D. during which time the city became a prominent ceremonial center." Xavier Alducin, 1984, Chichen Itza: A Practical Guide and Photo Album (Mexico: Ediciones Alducin, México, D.F.), page 18.
"The Caracol ("snail"). This is the only circular edifice in all of northern Mayan territory. Its tower was used as an astronomical observatory." Pierre Ivanoff, 1973, Monuments of Civilization: Maya (NY: Grosset & Dunlop)., page 114.
"At the end of the 10th century Chichén Itzá grew more metropolitan and became home to many foreigners, some of whom were surely the Toltecs of Central Mexico, led by the legendary 'feathered serpent' Quetzalcoatl. The latter had been expelled from Tula (north of Mexico City) by a rival faction. The 'Castillo,' or castle, as the Spanish conquerors called it, shows the architectural innovations of the time, some of them based on the theme of the 'feathered serpent.' One each face of the pyramid, as well as on the main facade, the ramps were designed to resemble the bodies of snakes, with their heads resting at the foot of the slope." Claude Baudez and Sydney Picasso, 1987 [1992 English translation of] Lost Cities of the Maya (NY: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers), page 61.
As with Cahokia and Chichén Itzá, I had known of Machu Pichu for years and when the opportunity arose July 1999 to visit both Machu Pichu (Perú) and the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador) my wife and I went!
" At 2,430 metres [7,972 feet] above sea level, on a mountain site of extraordinary beauty, in the middle of a tropical mountain forest, Machu Picchu was probably the most amazing urban creation of the Inca Empire at its height, with its giant walls, terraces and ramps, which appear as though they have been cut naturally in the continuous rock escarpments. The natural setting on the eastern slope of the Andes encompasses the upper Amazon basin with its rich diversity of species."http://whc.unesco.org/sites/274.htm [Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, Peru} 1983]
"The jagged contours of the mountain summit, together with the very dense vegetation that surrounded it, combined to isolate Machu Picchu from the outside world. The site was secluded not only from the Cuzco region but also from the lowlands--cut off by the gorge of the Pongo Moenike, which is impassable in any season. Hence the remarkable nature of this urban settlement." Carmen Bernard, 1988 [1994 English translation], The Incas: People of the Sun (NY: Harry N. Abrams), page 119.
"The Inca empire was founded in Cusco around AD 1100 by the first Inca, Manco Capac, both a historic and mythic figure. Legend has it that after the creator god Wiraccocha relived the world from darkness by pulling the heavenly bodies out of Lake Tititicaca...he created the first Incas in the same place. ... more gullible people insist that the following story be told. Cusco was founded by a man named Manco Capac around AD 1100, but the incas were just one of many small Andean states vying for control. Things changed in 1438 when the soon-to-become ninth Inca Pachacuti [Quechua for "Transformer"] defeated the fierce Chanka people, opening a way for a massive expansion of the empire. Cusco [Qosco, or "navel of the world'] became the center of Inka Perú, the building ground of great palaces and temples, and an administrative and religious headquarters." Rolán Solís Hernández [Editor], 1998, Let's Go Perú & Ecuador (NY: St. Martin's Press), page 123.
"Discovered" by Hiram Bingham [1875-1956], July 1911} "The ruins straddle a narrow ridge or saddle below the peak of Machu Picchu. On three sides the city is protected by the rapids of the Urubamba, roaring through the canyon 2000 feet below. On the fourth side the massif is approachable only along another razor-like spur of mountain. The eastern side of the ridge is impassable, and on the western side there is a footpath which runs along a narrow horizontal cleft in the precipice. A handful of men could defend it against an army. On the eastern and western side of the ridge are 1500 foot precipices, down which rocks could be rolled on to intruders [stress added]." Leonard Cottrell, 1957, Lost Cities (London: Pan Books), pages 202-203.
"The Inca culture made a more extensive and profound impact on the region than did any other pre-Hispanic society. With meager beginnings as a small tribe centered around Cusco (or Qosqo in the Inca tongue of the Quechua) in southern Peru, the Inca Empire expanded rapidly in the mid-15th century; within a century, it controlled nearly one-third of South America and more than ten million people." Rolán Solís Hernández [Editor], 1998, Let's Go Perú & Ecuador (NY: St. Martin's Press), page 44.
"The pucará [fortress] of Sascahuamán is not only one of the greatest single structures ever built in preliterate America, but it is also unlike its counterparts in that we know the identity of its architects, who gave their names to the three gateways to the fortress. …'The first and principal one was Huallpu Rimanchi Inca, who designed the general plan…. [citing Garcilasco de la Vega, born in Cuzco in 1535]. … The fortress was built into a limestone outcrop 1,800 feet long, and formed of three tiers of walls rising to fifty feet high. … The precise Inca records, as revealed in their quipus, state that '20,000 labourers, in continuous relays', worked for sixty-eight years to build Sascahuamán [stress added]." Victor Wolfgang von Hagen, 1976, The Royal Road of the Inca (London: Gordon Cremonesi Ltd), page 93.
"Sacsayhuaman is believed to for the head of the Cusco puma, the figure in which the Inca Pachacuti is said to have designed his city. The name itself may come from the words 'Sasca Uma,' Quechua for 'speckled head.' ... the parts still intact are among the most impressive Inca ruins in existence. Three tiers of gigantic zig-zag stone ramparts ... they amaze visitors with their precise interlocking edges. One estimate measures the biggest stone at 8.5m and 360 tons [stress in original]." Rolán Solís Hernández [Editor], 1998, Let's Go Perú & Ecuador (NY: St. Martin's Press), page 141.
"The jagged contours of the mountain summit, together with the very dense vegetation that surrounded it, combined to isolate Machu Picchu from the outside world. The site was secluded not only from the Cuzco region but also from the lowlands--cut off by the gorge of the Pongo Moenike, which is impassable in any season. Hence the remarkable nature of this urban settlement." Carmen Bernard, 1988 [1994 English translation], The Incas: People of the Sun (NY: Harry N. Abrams), page 119.
"Guidebooks have been known to exaggerate, but the Inca ruins of Machu Picchu truly are among the most awe-inspiring sights in South America. Clinging to a vertiginous hillside surrounded by severe drops and towering green mountains and bathed in a near-constant stream of sunshine, it is surpassed by few other settings." Rolán Solís Hernández [Editor], 1998, Let's Go Perú & Ecuador (NY: St. Martin's Press), page 150.
"Machupicchu, enigmatic city, very ancient and mysterious, is almost lost between reality, myth and legend. It was the University of Inka Culture, where were living the sorcer-teachers and Lords of the elements. It is also crucible of the Inka cosmic vision, spiritual teaching center of the Tawantinsuyu race, that has as a framework an impressive stage, that keeps balance between nature and work of the man. This city was hidden in the jungle for hundreds of years, waiting to the opportunity of be shown in its magnificency, and been saved of plunder and destruction that suffered other sister cities. Its last will was to remain off the plunder to emerge today, majestic, before us. Oscar Chara Zereceda, 1999, Machupicchu: An Inca University (Cusco-Perú: Imprenta del Centro Bartolomé de Las Casas, Cusco), pages 16-17.
"Understanding history is a way of understanding the present. In a changing world it is important to recognise the characteristics which identify us as the social individuals that we are. Globalisation need not be a problem if we understand our identity, and if we are capable of understanding our past we can then build on that [stress added]." Anon., 1999, Parque Histórico Guayaquil, Ecuador.
To repeat, I have been interested in topics like this since at least 1967 and will maintain my "book interests" and actual "travel interests" as long as I can. Human beings are amazing and anthropology is fun and in Spring 2003 I plan on making a presentation entitled "Some 'Sacred' Cities of America (Part II): Honolulu (Hawai'i), Las Vegas (Nevada), and Washington, D.C."
Some parallels that I mentioned today are also seen by others and consider the community of Chico, with approximately 66,800 in the "City" of Chico and some 99,375 individuals in the general area. On March 30, 2001, The San Francisco Chronicle reported that California is still the most populous state in the United States of America, with 33,871,648 residents [or ~12.05%] of the USA" and as The Wall Street Journal pointed out on August 29, 2001, "...California is not done growing. Over the next 20 years, another 15 million people will be born in, or move to, the Golden State [stress added]." It has been estimated that the population for California in the following years will be: 39,957,616 (in the year 2010), 45,448,627 (2020), and 58,731,006 (2040) (Chico Enterprise-Record, December 18, 1998, page 4A)" and by 2040, the state [of California] will have 58.7 million residents, a 75 percent increase, according to Department of Finance projections. The population in some counties could more than triple [stress added]" (Chico Enterprise-Record, May 2, 1999, page 1B).
"In 1950, the population of Chico was 12,722. The population more than doubled by 1980, to 26,601. During the past two decades, those numbers have increased to 64,581 in the City limits, and approximately 95,000 in the Chico Urban Area. Projections provided by the Butte County Association of Governments (BCAG) lists the population [of the city of Chico] at 75,879 in the year 2010, 85,364 in 2015, 90,035 in 2020, and 108,039 in the year 2025 [stress added]." Anon., 2002, Celebrate the Building Industry! Special Section ("Industrial Barbecue 2002") of The Chico Enterprise-Record, June 18, 2002, page 3.
"California's population continues to grow by more than 500,000 people a year. Such growth brings a host of challenges--how to provide enough affordable housing, adequate transportation, schools and jobs. In order to address these challenges, local cities and governments should be encouraged to work together and create regional growth management policies [stress added]." Elizabeth Klementowski, 2002, Flawed solution to an imaginary problem. The San Francisco Chronicle, June 18, 2002, page A19.
On Changes in California: "Almost 70,000 acres of California's open space was devoured by a growing population lured to the state by its booming economy from 1996 to 1998, according to a state report released Wednesday [October 11, 2000]. The urban sprawl is driven by California's influx of roughly 700,000 people a year [stress added]." Open space continues vanish act in state. (Associated Press) The Sacramento Bee, October 12, 2000, page A3.
On June 24, 2001, an article based on research from the University of California, Davis appeared in The Sacramento Bee (Alvin D. Sokolow," How Much State Farmland Is Disappearing?" pages L1 and L6). The research pointed out that 49,700 acres of California farmland disappears each year and since the campus of California State University, Chico (excluding the University farm) is 119 acres, approximately 417 Chico State campuses turn into various buildings every year! Consider, if you will, the following from Time of September 16, 2002 (in a section of articles entitled "The New Drought" dealing with North America today: too little rain and snow and record heat with devastating effects in parts of the United States):
"We are counting on Mother Nature to change [says Ken Beegles, Head of the Durango, Colorado, Offic e of the State Division of Water Resources]. But what if Mother Nature doesn't comply? Some 35 miles west of Duranko, in the Mesa Verde National Park, site of a fire in July [2002], are the famous cliff dwellings of the Anasazi--or ancestral puebloans, as they are now known--whose civilization flourished there until the end of the 13th century, when the combination of a 30-year drought, a population explosion and oversue of natural resources forced them out. Durango is oblivious to the lessons of history. It plans to build enough houses to expand its population 160%, to 40,000. This growth will require more water, and...." [stress added]." Terry McCarthy [with Rita Healy/Marvel], 2002, Colorado. Time, September 16, pages 56-58, page 58.
Events such as these, gradual as they are, are cumulative across the United States: "U.S. chewing up farmland at its fastest-ever rate" was a headline in The Sacramento Bee on October 4, 2002, just as I was finishing this paper:
"The United States is losing two acres of mostly prime farmland every minute to development, the fastest decline in the country's history, a new study has found. That loss has been on the edge of the outer suburbs, where some of the country's best fruit and agricultual farms are being replaced by houses on large lots, linked by new roads, highways, and malls.... The problem has been growing for two decades. While the nation's population grew 17 percent from 1982 to 1997, the amount of land turned into urban areas increased 47 percent [stress added]." Elizabeth Becker, 2002, U.S. chewing up farmland at its fastest-ever rate. The Sacramento Bee, October 4, 2002, pages D1 + D6.
What of the future for all of us? Please see (if you wish) http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/aStoryof2027.html to read a "story" of Chico in the year 2027.
"Situated as it was in the center of the country, nineteenth-century Cahokia was a microcosm reflecting the changes in the wider world of the United States. In the aftermath of the epic undeclared war of the whites against the Indians, soldiers and warriors on both sides moved inexorably westward, one with the force of irresistable conquest, the other in tragic withdrawal. Many groups of Europeans and their descendants followed in the wake of the conflict [stress added]." Sally A. Kitt Chappel, 2002, Cahokia: Mirror of the Cosmos (University of Chicago Press), page 95.
"The importation to the Western Hemisphere of these six species of hoofed mammals--cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, asses, and horses--fundamentally changed the ecology of the hemisphere [stress added]." Deb Bennet and Robert S. Hoffman, 1991, Ranching in the New World. Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis [Editors], Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press), pages 90-111, page 110.
"The Voyage of the Beagle (1840) [by Charles Darwin]. Perhaps the most significant voyage since that of Columbus, leading to the formulation of the theory of evolution and to a new concept of history [stress added]." Arthur Waldhorn et al. [Editors], 1985, Good Reading: A Guide For Serious Readers, 22nd edition (NY: New American Library), page 228.
"Wherever the European has trod, death seems to pursue the aboriginal. We may look to the wide extent of the Americas, Polynesia, the Cape of Good Hope, and Australia, and we find the same result. Nor is it the white man alone that acts as the destroyer; the Polynesian of Malay extraction has in parts of the East Indian archipelago, thus driven before him the dark-coloured native. The varieties of man seem to act on each other in the same way as different species of animals--the stronger always extirpating the weaker [stress added]." Charles R. Darwin [1809-1882], 1839, The Voyage of the Beagle (Chapter 19: "Australia"), 1972 Bantam paperback edition (with "Introduction" by Walter Sullivan), page 376.
"The unit of survival [or adaptation] is organism plus environment. We are learning by bitter experience that the organism which destroys its environment destroys itself. If, now, we correct the Darwinian unit of survival to include the environment and the interaction between organism and environment, a very strange and surprising identity emerges: the unit of survival turns out to be identical with the unit of mind" [italics in original; stress added]." Gregory Bateson [1904-1980], 1972, Steps To An Ecology of Mind (NY: Ballantine Books), page 483.
SOME VISUALS (Note: The visuals on the October 10, 2002 WWW page will be the same as the ones below.)
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from: Friar Diego de Landa (1579), Yucatan Before
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Cover from: Oscar Chara Zereceda, 1999, Machupicchu: An Inca University (Cusco-Perú: Imprenta del Centro Bartolomé de Las Casas, Cusco).
REFERENCES CITED (INCLUDING WEB SITES) (NOTE: Of necessity, some of the references below were not used today but will be used for the October 10, 2002 "Anthropology Forum" presentation. The "references cited" for both this paper, and the October 10 one, are therefore identical.)
Anon., 1999, Parque Histórico Guayaquil, Ecuador.
Xavier Alducin, 1984, Chichen Itza: A Practical Guide and Photo Album (Mexico: Ediciones Alducin, México, D.F.).
David G. Anderson, The Role of Cahokia in the Evolution of Southeastern Mississippian Society. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 248-268.
Claude Baudez and Sydney Picasso, 1987 [1992 English translation of] Lost Cities of the Maya (NY: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers).
Elizabeth Becker, 2002, U.S. chewing up farmland at its fastest-ever rate. The Sacramento Bee, October 4, 2002, pages D1 + D6.
Deb Bennet and Robert S. Hoffman, 1991, Ranching in the New World. Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis [Editors], Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press), pages 90-111.
Carmen Bernard, 1988 [1994 English translation], The Incas: People of the Sun (NY: Harry N. Abrams).
Gerardo Bustos, 1992, Yucatan And Its Archaeological Sites (D.F. México: Monclem Ediciones, S.A. de C.V.).
Sally A. Kitt Chappel, 2002, Cahokia: Mirror of the Cosmos (University of Chicago Press).
David Colbert [Editor], 1997, Eyewitness to America: 500 Years of America in the Words of Those Who Saw It Happen (NY: Pantheon Books).
Leonard Cottrell, 1957, Lost Cities (London: Pan Books).
Charles R. Darwin [1809-1882], 1839, The Voyage of the Beagle (Chapter 19: "Australia"), 1972 Bantam paperback edition (with "Introduction" by Walter Sullivan).
Friar Diego de Landa (1579), Yucatan Before And After The Conquest, Translated With notes by William Gates [Mexico: 1993 edition].
Brian M. Fagan [Editor], 1996, Eyewitness to Discovery: First-Person Accounts of More Than Fifty of the World's Greatest Archaeological Discoveries (Oxford University Press).
Brian Fagan, 1998, 50 Years of Discovery: How Archaeology Has Reconfigured The Human Past. Archaeology, September/October, Vol. 51, No. 5, pages 33-34.
Tim Flannery, 2001, The Eternal Frontier: An Ecological History of North America And Its People (NY: Atlantic Monthly Press).
Colin G. Galloway, 1997, New Worlds For All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America.
Joseph L. Gardner [Editor], 1986, Mysteries of the Ancient Americas: The New World Before Columbus (Pleasantville, NY: The Reader's Digest Association, Inc.).
Rolán Solís Hernández [Editor], 1998, Let's Go Perú & Ecuador (NY: St. Martin's Press).
Henry Hobhouse, 1985, Seeds of Change: Five Plants That Transformed Mankind (NY: Harper & Row).
Albert L. Hurtado and Peter Iverson, 2001, Major Problems In American Indian History (Boston/New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.).
Pierre Ivanoff, 1973, Monuments of Civilization: Maya (NY: Grosset & Dunlop).
Joyce Kelly, 1993, An Archaeological Guide to Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press).
Lucretia S. Kelly, 1997,Patterns of Faunal Exploitation at Cahokia. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 1-29.
Roger G. Kennedy, 1996, Hidden Cities: The Discovery And Loss of Ancient North American Civilization (NY: Penguin).
Jonathan Norton Leonard (and the editors of Time-Life Books), 1967, Ancient America (NY: Time-Life Books).
Thomas H. Maugh II, 2002, Archaeologists find long-hidden inca settlement. The Sacramento Bee, June 9, 2002, page A18.
Craig Mauro, 2002, The San Francisco Chronicle, March 19, 2002, page A6.
Terry McCarthy [with Rita Healy/Marvel], 2002, Colorado. Time, September 16, pages 56-58.
William H. McNeill, 1991, American Food Crops in the Old World. Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis [Editors], Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press), pages 42-59.
George R. Milner, 1998, The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press).
Patricia J. O'Brien, 1991, Early State Economics: Cahokia, Capital of the Ramey State. Early State Economics: Political and Legal Anthropology Volume 8, Henri J.M. Claessen and Pieter van de Velde [Editors] (New Brunswick/London: Transaction Publishers), pages 143-175.
Timothy R. Pauketat and Thomas E. Emerson, 1997, Introduction: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln/London: University of Nebraska Press), pages 1-29.
Ted Rose, 2001, Good Morning In Peru's 'Lost City.' The New York Times, Sunday, January 7, 2001, pages 10 and 20, page 10.
David Hurst Thomas, 2000, Exploring Native North America (NY: Oxford University Press).
Victor W. Von Hagen, 1960, The World Of the Maya (NY: The New American Library).
Victor Wolfgang von Hagen, 1976, The Royal Road of the Inca (London: Gordon Cremonesi Ltd).
Stephen William, 1992, Who Got To America First? Anthropology Explored: The Best Of Smithsonian Anthro Notes, 1998, edited by Ruth O. Selig and Marilyn R. London.
Oscar Chara Zereceda, 1999, Machupicchu: An Inca University (Cusco-Perú: Imprenta del Centro Bartolomé de Las Casas, Cusco).
APPROPRIATE WORLD WIDE WEB SITES
http://whc.unesco.org/heritage.htm [UNESCO World Heritage List]} "The 730 properties which the World Heritage Committee has inscribed on the World Heritage List (563 cultural, 144 natural and 23 mixed properties in 125 States Parties)."
http://whc.unesco.org/sites/198.htm [Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site} 1982]} "About 15 kilometres north of St Louis (Missouri), Cahokia provides the most complete source of information on pre-Colombian civilizations in the regions of the Mississippi. It is a striking example of a pre-urban sedentary structure that allows for the study of a kind of social organisation about which no written traces exist."
http://whc.unesco.org/sites/483.htm [Pre-Hispanic City of Chitchen-Itza} 1968]} "This site is one of the most impressive testimonies to the Mayan-Toltec civilization of the Yucatan (10th to 15th centuries). It contains some of the most outstanding examples of Central American architecture, combining Mayan construction techniques and Toltec sculpted decoration."
http://whc.unesco.org/sites/274.htm [Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, Peru} 1983]} "At 2,430 metres [7,972 feet] above sea level, on a mountain site of extraordinary beauty, in the middle of a tropical mountain forest, Machu Picchu was probably the most amazing urban creation of the Inca Empire at its height, with its giant walls, terraces and ramps, which appear as though they have been cut naturally in the continuous rock escarpments. The natural setting on the eastern slope of the Andes encompasses the upper Amazon basin with its rich diversity of species."
http://whc.unesco.org/sites/273.htm [City of Cuzco, Peru} 1983]} "Located in the Peruvian Andes, Cuzco developed, under the Inca ruler Pachacutec, into a complex urban centre with distinct religious and administrative functions. It was surrounded by clearly delineated areas for agricultural, artisan and industrial production. When the Spaniards conquered it in the 16th century, they maintained its structure but built Baroque churches and palaces over the ruins of the Indian city."
http://whc.unesco.org/sites/1bis.htm [Galapagos Islands} 1978, 2001]} "Situated in the Pacific Ocean some 1,000 km from the South American continent, these 19 islands and the surrounding marine reserve have been called a unique "living museum and showcase of evolution". Located at the confluence of three ocean currents, the Galápagos are a "melting pot" of marine species Ongoing seismic and volcanic activity reflects the processes that formed the islands. These processes, together with the extreme isolation of the islands, led to the development of unusual animal life &endash; such as the land iguana, the giant tortoise and the many types of finch &endash; that inspired Charles Darwin's theory of evolution following his visit in 1835."
http://medicine.wustl.edu/~mckinney/cahokia/cahokia.html [Cahokia, Illinois]
http://sunsite.unc.edu/expo/1492.exhibit/a-America/america.html [1492} What Came to be Called America Exhibit]
http://www.historylink101.com/1/mayan/mayan_research.htm [Mayan Research Page by History link 101]
http://www.rree.gob.pe/economia/comercio.htm [Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores del Perú]
http://homepages.which.net/~peru-embassy-uk/link.htm [Links to Perú]
http://ifip.com/Machupijchu1.htm [Machu Picchu]
http://www.machupicchu.org/library/ [The Machu Picchu Library]
http://www.travel.state.gov/travel_warnings.html [US State Department - Services - Travel Warnings....]
http://www.cdc.gov/default.htm [Centers For Disease Control and Prevention]
Charles F. Urbanowicz, 1967, The Classical Maya. Honors Papers (Bellingham, WN), Volume 6: pages 26-31, [http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/1967UndergradMayaPaper.htm].
Charles F. Urbanowicz, 1997, Camping is Great But Nothing Beats Home: Across the USA in Pursuit of Educational Technology. Inside Chico State, September 26, page 2 [http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/inside/archive/97_09_25/tech.html] [or see: http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/Camping1997Essay.html]
Charles F. Urbanowicz, 2001a, Culture and Nature: Machu Pichu (Perú) and the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador), July 2000 [http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationSpring2001.html].
Charles F. Urbanowicz & Sadie Urbanowicz, 2001b, Perú (Machu Picchu) and Galápagos Islands Visuals [http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/SoAmGIslands.html].
Charles F. Urbanowicz, 2002, A "Story" (Vision of Nightmare?) of the Region in 2027 [http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/aStoryof2027.html]
Charles F. Urbanowicz, 2003a, Some 'Sacred' Cities of America (Part II): Honolulu (Hawai'i), Las Vegas (Nevada), and Washington, D.C.). [For a presentation in Spring 2003 at the monthly lecture series entitled "World Explorations" sponsored by The Museum of Anthropology, California State University, Chico. It will eventually be located at: http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationSpring2003.htm].
Charles F. Urbanowicz, 2003b, The Anthropology Forum: 1973->2003! [For a presentation in Spring 2003 at the Anthropology Forum at California State University, Chico. It will eventually be located at: http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/30YearsOfAnthroForums.html]
[~9,306 words]} 4 October 2002
to the Department of Anthropology;
to California State University, Chico.
[This page printed from http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationFall2002.htm]
Copyright © 2002; all rights reserved by Charles F. Urbanowicz |
4 October 2002 by cfu |
